Now customize the name of a clipboard to store your clips. Iron is a trace element in marine environments. of your Kindle email address below. 0000004006 00000 n \7jllv 1!"%;RT"'_Y=SA&v90q911^*\7i8)tm=7M^FSL7m&tJX&$5WL6o=R6 u.nz7de\Ab/=qf=p8>_jb, M: URKKKK *E\B - &Ji IIII*&(((,-B@-%h The wide range of these. Comparative biochemistry Academic Press New York 1 347409, Fuchs, T., Huber, H., Burggraf, S., Stetter, K. O. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-9212-1_53, Shipping restrictions may apply, check to see if you are impacted, Reference Module Physical and Materials Science, Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout. 12. Archives of Microbiology 118:2126. "useRatesEcommerce": false Sci Total Environ. Chemolithotrophs are the ones those grow on supplement of oxidizable sulfur compounds such as Thiobacillus neapolitanus, Thiobacillus thioxidans (extreme acidiophiles), Thiobacillus thiospora, Thiobacillus denitrificans (facultative denitrifiers), Thiobacillus halophilus (halophiles) and Thiobacillus ferrooxidans (acidophilic ferrous Evaluation of continuous chemostat cultivation of Thiobacillus ferrooxidans on ferrous iron or tetrathionate, pp. ." Part of Springer Nature. Botanische Zeitung 45:489600, 606616. Autotrophs are refer, History A., Shively, J. M. 1989b Occurrence and regulation of Calvin cycle enzymes in non-autotrophic Beggiatoa strains Arch. Part of Springer Nature. 0000024652 00000 n The litho is a word with a Greek root meaning stone, thus this group of bacteria is called stone eaters (2). Energy relations in the metabolism of autotrophic bacteria. Chemolithotrophic growth can be dramatically fast, such as Hydrogenovibrio crunogenus with a doubling time around one hour. (February 22, 2023). General Microbiology by Linda Bruslind is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted. 960. These bacteria are most commonly encountered as the rusty coloured and slimy layer that builds up on the inside of toilet tanks. Oxidation kinetics and chemo-stat growth kinetics of Thiobacillus ferrooxidans on tetrathio-nate and thiosulfate. 1974. Ph.D. Thesis. The process was first described by the Russian microbiologist Sergej Winogradsky (1887, 1888). Another type of chemoautotroph is the "iron" bacteria. Chemoheterotrophs can be chemolithoheterotrophs, utilizing inorganic electron sources such as sulfur, or, much more commonly, chemoorganoheterotrophs, utilizing organic electron sources such as carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins. What is the purpose of each nitrogen compound and how does it relate to the organisms metabolism. Bio. In: Dworkin, M., Falkow, S., Rosenberg, E., Schleifer, KH., Stackebrandt, E. (eds) The Prokaryotes. Anammox or anaerobic ammonia oxidation is performed by marine bacteria, relatively recently discovered, that utilize nitrogen compounds as both electron acceptor and electron donor as a way for the cell to generate energy. 140 321325, Lane, D. J., Harrison, A. P., Stahl, D., Pace, B., Giovannoni, S. J., Olsen, G. J., Pace, N. P. 1992 Evolutionary relationships among sulfur-and iron-oxidizing eubacteria J. Bacteriol. A., Norris, P. R., Kelly, D. P., Le Roux, N. W. 1978 Characteristics of a moderately thermophilic and acidophilic iron-oxidizing Thiobacillus Europ. The process is performed by diazotrophs, a limited number of bacteria and archaea that can grow without an external source of fixed nitrogen, because of their abilities. J. Syst. Microbiol. Most chemolithotrophs are autotrophs (chemolithoautotrophs), where they fix atmospheric carbon dioxide to assemble the organic compounds that they need. 0000037877 00000 n Chemolitho (auto)trophic bacteria Elemental sulfur granules present in the tissues of sulfur-oxidizing bacteria from a submerged cave in central Florida. It appears that you have an ad-blocker running. 0000060819 00000 n Katrina Edwards. nov. by disproportionation of inorganic sulfur compounds Arch. 1989 Sergei N. Winogradsky and the discovery of chemosynthesis H. G. Schlegel and B. Bowien (ed.) World of Microbiology and Immunology. 0000002568 00000 n bacteria 33B 241261, Justin, P., Kelly, D. P. 1978 Growth kinetics of Thiobacillus denitrificans in anaerobic and aerobic chemostat culture J. Gen. Microbio. - 103.138.151.18. A., Denend, A. R. 1972 Ribulose diphosphate carboxylase from autotrophic microorganisms J. Bacteriol. Water as the source of oxidant and reductant in bacterial chemosynthesis. Chemolithotrophy sulfur oxidation metabolism - SlideShare USA 95 68546859, Wood, A. P., Kelly, D. P. 1983 Autotrophic and mixotrophic growth of three thermoacidophilic iron-oxidizing bacteria FEMS Microbiol. startxref 1996 Autotrophic carbon dioxide fixation in Acidanus brierleyi Arch. 129 357360, PubMed The chemotroph designation is in contrast to phototrophs, which use photons. The process can use oxidative phosphorylation, just like aerobic and anaerobic respiration, but now the substance being oxidized (the electron donor) is an inorganic compound. Smith, A. J., Hoare, D. S. 1977. Rev. The phylogeny of autotrophic ammonia-oxidizing bacteria as determined by analysis of 16S ribosomal RNA gene sequences, Quantification of ammonia-oxidizing bacteria in arable soil by real-time PCR, Evidence that particulate methane monooxygenase and ammonia monooxygenase may be evolutionarily related, Enzymology of the oxidation of ammonia to nitrite by bacteria, A survey of 16 S rRNA and amoA genes related to autotrophic ammonia-oxidizing bacteria of the beta-subdivision of the class proteobacteria in contaminated groundwater, Mathematical modeling of autotrophic denitrification in a nitrifying biofilm of a rotating biological contactor, Ammonia-oxidizing bacteria: a model for molecular microbial ecology. Download preview PDF. Archives of Microbiology 117:209214. 11 335365, Kelly, D. P. 1967 Problems of the autotrophic microorganisms Science Progress 55 3551, Kelly, D. P. 1971 Autotrophy: concepts of lithotrophic bacteria and their organic metabolism Ann. Environ. (eds. Mikrobiol. Assimilative nitrate reduction is a reduction of nitrate to cellular nitrogen, in a multi-step process where nitrate is reduced to nitrite then ammonia and finally into organic nitrogen. 10 209212, Fromageot, C., Senez, J. C. 1960 Aerobic and anaerobic reactions of inorganic substances M. Florkin and H. S. Mason (ed.) Lithoautotroph - Wikipedia Springer, Dordrecht. 129 221226, Beudeker, R. F., de Boer, W., Kuenen, J. G. 1981bHeterolactic fermentation of intracellular polyglucose by the obligate chemolithotroph Thiobacillus neapolitanus under anaerobic conditions FEMS Microbiol. CAS xref Just as both the electron donors and acceptors can vary widely for this group of organisms, the amount of ATP generated for their efforts will vary widely as well. Kelly, D. P., Wood, A. P. 1984 Potential for methylotrophic autotrophy in Thiobacillus versutus (Thiobacillus sp. 181 15691575, Wagner, M., Roger, A. J., Flax, J. L., Brusseau, G. A., Stahl, D. A. %PDF-1.6 % 0000078893 00000 n FEMS Microbiology Letters 2: 305307. 1$0az@< 0=3{3;b5|@cj3E? @n @kindle.com emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply. Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative, Over 10 million scientific documents at your fingertips, Not logged in Chemotrophs can be found in areas where electron donors are present in high concentration, for instance around hydrothermal vents. Meyer, O., Schlegel, H. G. 1978. https://www.encyclopedia.com/science/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/chemoautotrophic-and-chemolithotrophic-bacteria, "Chemoautotrophic and Chemolithotrophic Bacteria In: Reitner, J., Thiel, V. (eds) Encyclopedia of Geobiology. Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content: Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article. The first group is the colorless sulfur bacteria. An official website of the United States government. Epub 2016 Aug 5. Microbial Physiology Kelly, D. P. 1971. Chemolithotroph - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics Bethesda, MD 20894, Web Policies 42 317324, Schauder, R., Widdel, F., Fuchs, G. 1987 Carbon assimilation pathways in sulfate-reducing bacteria. Environ. 167 106111, Schnheit, P., Schfer, T. 1995 Metabolism of hyperthermophiles World J. Microbiol. Whereas there is no known macrofauna possessing the capability of chemolithotrophy, some animals such as particular tubeworms and bivalves can form symbioses with chemolithotrophs, (e.g., at cold seeps or in hydrothermal environments). 2022 Sep 12;13:924137. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.924137. 1996 The 16S rDNA-based phylogeny of the archaeal order Sulfolobales and reclassification of Desulfurolobus ambivalens as Acidanus ambivalens comb. Chemolithotrophic bacteria that use sulfate as terminal electron acceptor (sulfate-reducing bacteria) constitute a unique physiological group of microorganisms that couple anaerobic electron transport to ATP synthesis. 2022 Aug 31;13:997292. doi: 10.3389/fpls.2022.997292. Bacteriol. hasContentIssue true, Introduction to bacterial physiology and metabolism, Composition and structure of prokaryotic cells, Membrane transport nutrient uptake and protein excretion, Tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle, electron transport and oxidative phosphorylation, Heterotrophic metabolism on substrates other than glucose, Energy, environment and microbial survival, Korea Institute of Science and Technology, Seoul, https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511790461.011, Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. 2. J. Syst. 22 Feb. 2023 . The groundwater running through the cave contains a strong sulfuric acid. Chemoautotrophic bacteria and chemolithotrophic bacteria obtain their energy from the oxidation of inorganic (non-carbon) compounds. The .gov means its official. (eds. The Chemolithotrophic Prokaryotes | SpringerLink 166 394398, McFadden, B. Natl. Microbiologist at Maharshi Dayanand University. Brock Biology of Microorganisms, 11th edn. Ammonia-oxidising Crenarchaeota: important players in the nitrogen cycle? Encyclopedia.com. Winogradsky, S. 1887. Archives of Microbiology 116:4149. If the energy source consists of large chemicals that are complex in structure, as is the case when the chemicals are derived from once-living organisms, then it is the chemoautotrophic bacteria that utilize the source. Looks like youve clipped this slide to already. 0000004053 00000 n [1] These molecules can be organic ( chemoorganotrophs) or inorganic ( chemolithotrophs ). 23 319324, London, J. Env. nov., a thermoacidophilic, aerobic, hydrogen-oxidizing bacterium requiring elemental sulfur for growth Int. J. Microbiol. Sulfur Oxidizing Bacterium - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics Appl. The term Chemolithotrophy refers to the gain of energy for cell biosynthesis and maintenance from the oxidation of inorganic compounds (= electron donors), in the absence of light (Kelly and Wood, 2006). However, the date of retrieval is often important. 0000015112 00000 n Microbiol. Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License. Indeed, the inorganic processes associated with chemoautotrophs and chemolithotrophs may make these bacteria one of the most important sources of weathering and erosion of rocks on Earth. Microbiol. In this chemolithotrophic reaction, ammonia is oxidized anaerobically as the electron . But how much less than 32 molecules of ATP greatly depends upon the actual donor and acceptor being used. Nitrogen fixation is an essential process for Earths organisms, since nitrogen is a required component of various organic molecules, such as amino acids and nucleotides. 146 382389, Zavarzin, G. A. Chemolithotroph - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics Department-Microbiology(2nd semester) 15 340351, Ishii, M., Miyake, T., Satoh, T., Sugiyama, H., Oshima, Y., Igarashi, Y. Altmetric. The presence of chemolithotrophic sulfur-oxidizing bacteria in the sulfide-containing hydrothermal water supports the hypothesis that chemosynthesis provides a substantial primary food source for the rich populations of invertebrates found in the immediate vicinity of the vents. Chemolithotrophs include organisms that exhibit extraordinary diversity in the range of substrates metabolized by different genera, in their modes of carbon nutrition, and in the variety of morphology and habitat. I. Leipzig: Engel-mann. Encyclopedias almanacs transcripts and maps, Chemoautotrophic and Chemolithotrophic Bacteria. Thermodynamics, Laws of Microbiol. . Chemolithotrophy can occur aerobically or anaerobically. "Chemoautotrophic and Chemolithotrophic Bacteria This produces large amounts of excess byproducts, resulting in the loss of nitrogen from the local environment to the atmosphere. Natl. The word thermodynam, activation energy Symbol Ea. Examples of these proteins include ironsulfur proteins, hemoglobin, and coordination complexes. 59 29182926, Wachtershauser, G. 1988 Before enzymes and templates: theory of surface metabolism Microbiol. 3 159196, Rittenberg, S. C. 1972 The obligate autotrophthe demise of a concept Antonie van Leeuwenhoek J. Microbiol. Madigan, M., and Martinko, J. https://doi.org/10.1007/0-387-30742-7_15, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/0-387-30742-7_15, eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesReference Module Biomedical and Life Sciences. 95 844855, Smith, A. J., Hoare, D. S. 1977 Specialist phototrophs, lithotrophs, and methylotrophs: A unity among a diversity of prokaryotes? Marine ecology John Wiley & Sons London. The chemolithotrophic prokaryotes. - 52.23.24.174. Soc. Sequence and heterologous expression of active methyltetrahydrofolate: corrinoid/ iron-sulfur protein methyltransferase from Clostridium thermoaceticum, The rocky roots of the acetyl-CoA pathway, Stable carbon isotopic fractionations associated with inorganic carbon fixation by anaerobic ammonium-oxidizing bacteria, Something from almost nothing: carbon dioxide fixation in chemolithotrophs, Phylogeny of ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase genes in haloalkaliphilic obligately autotrophic sulfur-oxidizing bacteria of the genus Thioalkalivibrio, Occurrence, phylogeny and evolution of ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase genes in obligately chemolithoautotrophic sulfur-oxidizing bacteria of the genera Thiomicrospira and Thioalkalimicrobium, Enzymes and coenzymes of the carbon monoxide dehydrogenase pathway for autotrophic CO2 fixation in Archaeoglobus lithotrophicus and the lack of carbon monoxide dehydrogenase in the heterotrophic A-profundus, Pathways of autotrophic CO2 fixation and of dissimilatory nitrate reduction to N2O in Ferroglobus placidus, CO2-responsive expression and gene organization of three ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase enzymes and carboxysomes in Hydrogenovibrio marinus strain MH-110, Find out more about saving to your Kindle, Book: Bacterial Physiology and Metabolism, Chapter DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511790461.011. Aspects of microbial metabolism and ecology Academic Press London. Microbial chemolithotrophy mediates oxidative weathering of - PNAS 160 152157. please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves. government site. This kind of bacterial metabolism is referred to as mixotrophy. nov Int. As with chemoorganotrophs, metabolism of chemolithotrophs requires ATP and NAD(P)H for carbon metabolism and biosynthetic processes. What are the most common electron donors and acceptors for chemolithotrophs? would otherwise be devoid of bacterial life. Brock, T. D., Gustafson, J. Schlegel, H. G. 1975. and transmitted securely. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-13187-9_79, Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout. The metabolism of inorganic sulphur compounds by thiobacilli. Just like denitrification, the anammox reaction removes fixed nitrogen from a local environment, releasing it to the atmosphere. B., Arnon, D. I. Free access to premium services like Tuneln, Mubi and more. Li M, Li S, Chen S, Meng Q, Wang Y, Yang W, Shi L, Ding F, Zhu J, Ma R, Guo X. Int J Environ Res Public Health. Brierley, J. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the The term "Chemolithotrophy" refers to the gain of energy for cell biosynthesis and maintenance from the oxidation of inorganic compounds (= electron donors), in the absence of light (Kelly and Wood, 2006).The process was first described by the Russian microbiologist Sergej Winogradsky (1887, 1888).Chemolithotrophy is a strategy unique to some prokaryotes (i.e., Bacteria and Archaea), the . 1986 Acidianus infernus gen. nov. sp. Examples of chemoautotrophic nitrifying bacteria include Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter. Chemoautotrophs, in addition to deriving energy from chemical reactions, synthesize all necessary organic compounds from carbon dioxide. 0000009714 00000 n Soc. 324329. sharing sensitive information, make sure youre on a federal Chemolithotrophic Sulfur-Oxidizing Bacteria from the Galapagos Rift Some of the electron donors used by chemolithotrophs have a redox potential higher than that of NAD (P) + /NAD (P)H (Table 10.1). The water is very acidic and contains ferrous iron. One group of chemolithotrophs can perform the first part of the nitrification process, ammonia oxidation, while a different group of chemolithotrophs can perform the nitrite oxidation that occurs in the second part of nitrification. Thermodynamic aspects of energy conservation by chemolithotrophic nov., a facultatively anaerobic, facultatively autotrophic sulphur bacterium J. Gen. Microbiol. Kondratieva, E. N., Zhukov, V. G., Ivanovsky, R. N., Petushkova, Yu. Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative, Over 10 million scientific documents at your fingertips, Not logged in Microbiol. Only bacteria are chemolithotrophs. Much of the chemical conversions are performed by microbes as part of their metabolism, performing a valuable service in the process for other organisms in providing them with an alternate chemical form of the element. PubMedGoogle Scholar, Department of Bacteriology, University of California, 95616, Davis, California, USA, Lehrstuhl fr Mikrobiologie, Universitt Bayreuth, 8580, Bayreuth, Federal Republic of Germany, Institut fr Mikrobiologie, Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universitt, 5300, Bonn 1, Federal Republic of Germany, Bacteriology Division, Centers for Disease Control, 30333, Atlanta, Georgia, USA, Institut fr Mikrobiologie, Universitt Gttingen, 3400, Gttingen, Federal Republic of Germany, Kelly, D.P. Just as with either type of respiration, the best electron acceptor is oxygen, to create the biggest distance between the electron donor and the electron acceptor. sp., a non-autotrophic Thiobacillus Arch. 1976. https://www.encyclopedia.com/science/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/chemoautotrophic-and-chemolithotrophic-bacteria, Biological Energy Use, Cellular Processes of. 0000084636 00000 n CAS The position of nitrate respiration in evolution. Refer to each styles convention regarding the best way to format page numbers and retrieval dates. Google Scholar. Trans. Companion to microbiology Longman London. A novel type of facultative autotroph Arch. Botanische Zeitung, 46, 261270. Ferric iron reduction by sulfur-and iron-oxidizing bacteria. Acad. 59 218225, Lyalikova, N. N. 1972 Oxidation of trivalent antimony up to higher oxides as a source of energy for the development of a new autotrophic organism, Stibiobacter gen. nov. 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Serol. Z. 0000002800 00000 n SEEMA YADAV. A., Norris, P. R., Kelly, D. P. 1980. Indeed, the most dangerous for artifacts are the . Bakteriol. Autotrophy and the origins of metabolism, Biodeterioration of natural stone with special reference to nitrifying bacteria, First evidence for existence of an uphill electron transfer through the bc1 and NADH-Q oxidoreductase complexes of the acidophilic obligate chemolithotrophic ferrous ion-oxidizing bacterium Thiobacillus ferrooxidans, A new rate law describing microbial respiration, Molecular biology and biochemistry of ammonia oxidation by Nitrosomonas europaea, Molecular analysis of ammonia oxidation and denitrification in natural environments. Bacteriol. Aerobic refers to oxygen as it concerns an organism. 1963 Thiobacillus intermedius nov. sp. This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution. Alvarez, M., Barton, L. L. 1977. 15 352356, Butlin, K. R., Adams, M. E. 1947 Autotrophic growth of sulphate-reducing bacteria Nature 160 154155, Caspi, R., Haygood, M. G., Tebo, B. M. 1996 Unusual ribulose-1, 5-biphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase genes from a marine manganese-oxidizing bacterium Microbiology (UK) 142 25492559, Chyba, C. F. 1992 The violent environment of the origin of life J. Tran Thanh Van, K. Tran Thanh Van, J. C. Mounlou, J. Schneider, and C. McKay (eds.) 0000006778 00000 n J. Syst. 0000047357 00000 n A., de Bruijn, P., Robertson, L. A., Jetten, M. S. M., Kuenen, J. G. 1997 Metabolic pathway of anaerobic ammonium oxidation on the basis of 15N studies in a fluidized bed reactor Microbiology (UK) 143 24152421, van Gool, A., Tobback, P. P., Fischer, I. Chemotrophs can be either autotrophic or heterotrophic. Activate your 30 day free trialto continue reading. Some of the electron donors used by chemolithotrophs have a redox potential higher than that of NAD(P)+/NAD(P)H (Table 10.1). dkNET Office Hours - "Are You Ready for 2023: New NIH Data Management and Sha REGENERATIVE BRAKING IN ELECTRIC VEHICLES.pptx, Easy-handling carbon nanotubes decorated poly(arylene ether nitrile).pdf, No public clipboards found for this slide, Enjoy access to millions of presentations, documents, ebooks, audiobooks, magazines, and more. Annual Review of Microbiology 22:489518. How are different nitrogen compounds used in their metabolism? Mechanisms of chemoautotrophy, pp. [Their life processes are played out in a very simple fashion; all their life activities are driven by a purely inorganic chemical process.]. 0000084677 00000 n Specialist phototrophs, litho-trophs, and methylotrophs: A unity among a diversity of pro-caryotes? Lett. We've updated our privacy policy. Annual Review of Microbiology 25:177210. Growth yields and growth rates of Desulfovibrio vulgaris (Marburg) growing on hydrogen plus sulfate and hydrogen plus thiosulfate as the sole energy sources. Aerobic nitrogen-fixing organisms must devise special conditions or arrangements in order to protect their enzyme. In: Gould, G. W., Corry, J. E. L. Peck, H. D. 1968. CrossRef 33 slides Chemoautotrophs and photosynthetic eubacteria ramukhan 9.5k views 70 slides FERMENTATIONS , PHOTOSYNTHESIS & NITROGEN FIXATION Vidya Kalaivani Rajkumar 1k views 23 slides B.Sc Micro II Microbial physiology Unit 1 Bacterial Photosynthesis Rai University 48.2k views 68 slides Slideshows for you 152 3943, Nishihara, H., Igarashi, U., Kodawa, T. 1990 A new isolate of Hydrogenobacter, an obligately chemolithoautotrophic, thermophilic, halophilic and aerobic hydrogen-oxidizing bacterium from a seaside saline hot spring Arch. 2264 62 A third type of chemoautotrophic bacteria includes the nitrifying bacteria. Sci Total Environ. The reactions occur within the anammoxosome, a specialized cytoplasmic structure which constitutes 50-70% of the total cell volume. 1957 The origin of life on the Earth Oliver and Boyd Edinburgh. London: Longman. Gen. Microbiol. Such beneficial outcomes could be partially mediated by soil bacteria, however little is known about how they directly interact with biochar or MEB. Microbiol. Aromatic-turmerone ameliorates DSS-induced ulcerative colitis via modulating gut microbiota in mice. Rev. Autotrophic bacteria obtain the carbon that they need to sustain survival and growth from carbon dioxide (CO2). Lett. 93 874878, Hipp, W. M., Pott, A. S., Thum-Schmirtz, N., Faath, I., Dahl, C., Truper, H. G. 1997 Towards a phylogeny of APS reductases and sirohaem sulfite reductases in sulfate-reducing and sulfur-oxidizing prokaryotes Microbiology (UK) 143 28912902, Holmes, A. J., Costello, A., Lidstrom, M. E., Murrell, J. 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G. 1979 Competition between the facultatively chemolithotrophic Thiobacillus A2, an obligat, Grabovich, M. Y., Dubinina, G. A., Lebedeva, V. Y., Churikova, V. V. 1998 Mixotrophic and lithoheterotrophic growth of the freshwater filamentous sulfur bacterium Beggiatoa leptomitiformis D-402 Microbiology (Moscow) 67 383388, Gribaldo, S., Cammarano, P. 1998 The root of the universal tree of life inferred from anciently duplicated genes encoding components of the protein-targeting machinery J. Mol.